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Chapter 1: The legacy of the crisis: resilience and challenges
have improved ( ) and the sectors Chart 18: Older workers less affected by job losses since 2008
39
in which they are employed have than in the 1990s: changes in employment rates for prime-age
changed. Moreover, employers are (25–54) and older (55–64) age groups in 1992–96 and 2008–13,
often reluctant to lay off their most in percentage points, selected Member States
experienced workers, who also often
benefit from a better protection 15
(higher severance pay) than younger 10
workers due to longer employment
40
histories ( ). 5
• If they become unemployed, older 0
workers are less likely than before
to withdraw from the labour market -5 25-54 55-64
not least because of policies intro- -10
duced over the last two decades
to extend working lives, such as -15
reforms in pension schemes (general 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13
increase in the statutory retirement
age), and early retirement schemes. EU-15 DE ES FR IT FI SE UK
Moreover, alternative options such Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS, [lfsi_emp_a].
as disability schemes have been
closed or made less accessible ( ).
41
to rising levels of education of women although this may no longer be the
The continued increase in female activity over time ( 43 ). This has brought the case in some countries that have
rates also results from a combination behaviour of women in the labour mar- applied major fiscal consolidation
45
of factors. ket much closer to that of men with a measures ( ). Moreover, women
rising share of dual-earner households. tend to be over-represented in public
• Women tend to work in sectors that and non-market service sectors that
are less hit by the recession ( ) (see • Measures supporting female par- are now becoming more adversely
42
also European Commission (2013), ticipation such as flexible working affected by fiscal consolidation in
Chapter 3). This seems to explain arrangements, the removal of finan- many Member States ( ).
46
most of the better performance of cial disincentives for second earners,
women’s employment during the childcare and elderly care facilities Moreover, recent trends have not led to
crisis, while the ‘added-workers’ have also played a role, together a substantial decrease in the large gen-
effects may also have played a part with measures to retain older women der inequalities in the labour market that
44
(see Box 1). longer in the labour market ( ). persist in many EU Member States to
Until 2013, there were no signs of the disadvantage of women, in terms of
• There has been a structural increase in a reversal in the policies supporting activity and employment rates as well as
the participation of women, mainly due female participation (see Section 4) in terms of part-time work and earnings.
( ) Between 1992 and 2008, the overall level of
39
education of older workers increased more
quickly than for prime-age workers, even
when excluding the effects of the rising level
of education among women. EU-LFS data
for EU-15 countries shows that the share
of low-educated among male older workers
dropped sharply, from 53.9 % in 1992 to
32.3 % in 2008 (–21.6 pp) compared to
prime age workers (from 40.2 % to 28.2 %
or –12.0 pps). The share of tertiary educated
persons among older men increased more
sharply than among prime-age workers.
( ) The share of older workers under involuntary
40
temporary contract is also much lower
(4.4 % among those aged 55–64 compared ( ) For instance, among women aged 25–49
43
to 8.1 % for prime-age and 14.7 % for young (50–64) the share of those with not more
workers, i.e. EU-LFS data for EU-28 in 2013). than lower secondary education decreased
41
( ) European Commission (2011), Chapter 5. from 41 to 22 % (64 to 38 %) between 1995
( ) Female employment was less affected by and 2013, or –19 pps (–26 pps), to the profit
42
the recession than male (respectively –0.6 % of the medium and high educational groups
over 2008–13 against –4.7 %). While the (based on EU-LFS data on EU-15).
two male-dominated sectors (manufacturing ( ) Analysis by age and education confirms that
44
and construction) were strongly affected by the overall increase in female activity rate
the crisis, the two main female-dominated is not only due to change in the composition 45
sectors (education and human health and (i.e. increase in average level of education) ( ) European Commission (2012b).
social work) resisted well. and affected most sub-groups of women. ( ) European Parliament (2014).
46
51
have improved ( ) and the sectors Chart 18: Older workers less affected by job losses since 2008
39
in which they are employed have than in the 1990s: changes in employment rates for prime-age
changed. Moreover, employers are (25–54) and older (55–64) age groups in 1992–96 and 2008–13,
often reluctant to lay off their most in percentage points, selected Member States
experienced workers, who also often
benefit from a better protection 15
(higher severance pay) than younger 10
workers due to longer employment
40
histories ( ). 5
• If they become unemployed, older 0
workers are less likely than before
to withdraw from the labour market -5 25-54 55-64
not least because of policies intro- -10
duced over the last two decades
to extend working lives, such as -15
reforms in pension schemes (general 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13 1992-96 2008-13
increase in the statutory retirement
age), and early retirement schemes. EU-15 DE ES FR IT FI SE UK
Moreover, alternative options such Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS, [lfsi_emp_a].
as disability schemes have been
closed or made less accessible ( ).
41
to rising levels of education of women although this may no longer be the
The continued increase in female activity over time ( 43 ). This has brought the case in some countries that have
rates also results from a combination behaviour of women in the labour mar- applied major fiscal consolidation
45
of factors. ket much closer to that of men with a measures ( ). Moreover, women
rising share of dual-earner households. tend to be over-represented in public
• Women tend to work in sectors that and non-market service sectors that
are less hit by the recession ( ) (see • Measures supporting female par- are now becoming more adversely
42
also European Commission (2013), ticipation such as flexible working affected by fiscal consolidation in
Chapter 3). This seems to explain arrangements, the removal of finan- many Member States ( ).
46
most of the better performance of cial disincentives for second earners,
women’s employment during the childcare and elderly care facilities Moreover, recent trends have not led to
crisis, while the ‘added-workers’ have also played a role, together a substantial decrease in the large gen-
effects may also have played a part with measures to retain older women der inequalities in the labour market that
44
(see Box 1). longer in the labour market ( ). persist in many EU Member States to
Until 2013, there were no signs of the disadvantage of women, in terms of
• There has been a structural increase in a reversal in the policies supporting activity and employment rates as well as
the participation of women, mainly due female participation (see Section 4) in terms of part-time work and earnings.
( ) Between 1992 and 2008, the overall level of
39
education of older workers increased more
quickly than for prime-age workers, even
when excluding the effects of the rising level
of education among women. EU-LFS data
for EU-15 countries shows that the share
of low-educated among male older workers
dropped sharply, from 53.9 % in 1992 to
32.3 % in 2008 (–21.6 pp) compared to
prime age workers (from 40.2 % to 28.2 %
or –12.0 pps). The share of tertiary educated
persons among older men increased more
sharply than among prime-age workers.
( ) The share of older workers under involuntary
40
temporary contract is also much lower
(4.4 % among those aged 55–64 compared ( ) For instance, among women aged 25–49
43
to 8.1 % for prime-age and 14.7 % for young (50–64) the share of those with not more
workers, i.e. EU-LFS data for EU-28 in 2013). than lower secondary education decreased
41
( ) European Commission (2011), Chapter 5. from 41 to 22 % (64 to 38 %) between 1995
( ) Female employment was less affected by and 2013, or –19 pps (–26 pps), to the profit
42
the recession than male (respectively –0.6 % of the medium and high educational groups
over 2008–13 against –4.7 %). While the (based on EU-LFS data on EU-15).
two male-dominated sectors (manufacturing ( ) Analysis by age and education confirms that
44
and construction) were strongly affected by the overall increase in female activity rate
the crisis, the two main female-dominated is not only due to change in the composition 45
sectors (education and human health and (i.e. increase in average level of education) ( ) European Commission (2012b).
social work) resisted well. and affected most sub-groups of women. ( ) European Parliament (2014).
46
51
