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Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2014
Annex 2: Different models of work factor, decentralisation of decision-making
Organisation organisation and self-managed teams, performance-
of work — based compensation structures and rather
Technical details The typology initially developed by Lor - extensive training and strong problem-solv -
enz and Valeyre builds on a review of the ing opportunities. However, lean and learning
Criteria for classification literature on work organisation covering forms of work organisation differ on a num -
High Performance Work systems (HPWS) ber of points such as:
Classification of work organisation is (Appelbaum and Batt, 1993, 1994; Pfef-
established on the basis of 15 dimen- fer, 1998; Osterman, 1994), the lean pro- • A higher level of individual autonomy
sions that describe relevant and discrimi - duction model (MacDuffie and Pil, 1997), granted to workers (higher in learning
nating aspects of work organisation: the socio-technical system (Emery and organisations as well as in the socio-
Trist, 1960), learning organisations (Zari- technical models but lower in lean
• Two binary variables measuring fian, 2003), Tayloristic organisations and production models);
autonomy in work: adhocracies (Mintzberg, 1979). This review
- Autonomy in choosing methods led to the identification of 15 dimensions • A higher level of standardisation
of work; that describe relevant and discriminating in lean forms of work organisation
- Autonomy in pace or rate at which aspects of work organisation covering (tasks, quality standards, etc.);
work is carried out. autonomy in work, quality control, cogni-
tive dimensions of work, constraints of the • A higher interdependent work struc-
• Two binary variables measuring the pace or rate of work, novelty in job tasks ture as well as higher dependence on
way quality is controlled: and teamwork, and can be measured by technologies to set the pace of work-
- Use of precise quality standards; the EWCS. In the 2010 survey, the same ers and reliance on team work in lean
- Self-assessment of the quality 15 dimensions to determine the presence production forms;
of work. and size of the four types of work organi-
sations is used. • An emphasis on workers’ autonomy
• Three binary variables measuring the in organising and controlling the
cognitive dimensions of work: Traditional forms of work organisation are products of their work, decreased
- Complexity of tasks; based on the principles of labour division, interdependency of work process in
- Learning new things in work; hierarchical and centralised authority and learning organisations;
- Work requires problem-solving. control. They are designed as static struc -
tures, optimised for a fixed set of external • Attention to quality of working life is
• Four binary variables measuring con - economic, social and cultural conditions. a key driver for example in the case
straints of the pace or rate of work: However, the emergence of new and uncer - of STS;
- Constraints linked to the equip- tain environments has put these traditional
ment speed or movement of work structures under increasing pressure. • While learning in lean production
a product in production flow; As a response, new forms of work organisa - forms of organisation is mostly used
- Constraints relating to numerical tion have emerged that are more flexible to improve the work processes and
production or performance targets; and more responsive to changing internal or increase productivity, learning activities
- Constraints due to direct control by external circumstances. Many of these ‘new’ in the case of learning organisations are
worker’s immediate supervisors; forms are often grouped together under seen as a critical activity for respond-
- Constraints resulting from depend - the label ‘High Performance workplaces’ ing to unforeseen events and for the
ency on the work done by work- (HPWP), but this group is far from being introduction of important innovations.
er’s colleagues. homogeneous and covers some of the
defining characteristics of different organi - In contrast to Tayloristic organisations,
• Three binary variables measuring sational forms such as the socio-technical which have been abundantly criticised for
degree of novelty in job tasks: systems (STS), the learning organisations, their physically demanding work, repetitive
- Perceived monotony of tasks; lean production, high performance work tasks and low learning opportunities, because
- Repetitiveness of tasks of less systems and the adhocracy (Mintzberg). conception is distinct from execution, lean
than one minute. production is designed to improve the overall
- Task rotation between colleagues Combs et al (2006), in a meta-analysis of performance of the organisation by assigning
92 recent studies on HPWS and perfor- more autonomy to workers and their immedi -
• A three-level variable measuring of mance, found evidence that HPWS enhance ate managers, but with continued emphasis
the use of teamwork, with catego- organisational performance. An increase in on the strict quality standards, standardisa -
ries of autonomous teamwork (team one standard deviation in the use of HPWS tion of work and procedures and with reliance
members decide the division of tasks), is associated with a 4.6 % increase in gross on individual performance-based pay struc -
non-autonomous teamwork (manag- return on assets and a 4.4 percentage-point tures. Lean forms of work organisation differ
ers/supervisors decide the division of decrease in turnover from 18.4 to 14.0 %. in a number of ways from the STS in that
tasks) and no teamwork( ). The effect is stronger when bundles of meas - they promote development of more special -
125
ures are considered together rather than ised, contextualised skills, organise work into
individual practices. Effects sizes are larger wider production systems (greater interde -
( ) In the analyses of trend data a binary in manufacturing industries than in service pendency) and provide feedback and support
125
variable measuring presence of teamwork industries. Common to these HPWP forms that are based on the degree to which strict
was used, since a three-level variable was
not available in the 2000 EWCS dataset. are attention to knowledge as a competitive performance criteria are satisfied.
178
Annex 2: Different models of work factor, decentralisation of decision-making
Organisation organisation and self-managed teams, performance-
of work — based compensation structures and rather
Technical details The typology initially developed by Lor - extensive training and strong problem-solv -
enz and Valeyre builds on a review of the ing opportunities. However, lean and learning
Criteria for classification literature on work organisation covering forms of work organisation differ on a num -
High Performance Work systems (HPWS) ber of points such as:
Classification of work organisation is (Appelbaum and Batt, 1993, 1994; Pfef-
established on the basis of 15 dimen- fer, 1998; Osterman, 1994), the lean pro- • A higher level of individual autonomy
sions that describe relevant and discrimi - duction model (MacDuffie and Pil, 1997), granted to workers (higher in learning
nating aspects of work organisation: the socio-technical system (Emery and organisations as well as in the socio-
Trist, 1960), learning organisations (Zari- technical models but lower in lean
• Two binary variables measuring fian, 2003), Tayloristic organisations and production models);
autonomy in work: adhocracies (Mintzberg, 1979). This review
- Autonomy in choosing methods led to the identification of 15 dimensions • A higher level of standardisation
of work; that describe relevant and discriminating in lean forms of work organisation
- Autonomy in pace or rate at which aspects of work organisation covering (tasks, quality standards, etc.);
work is carried out. autonomy in work, quality control, cogni-
tive dimensions of work, constraints of the • A higher interdependent work struc-
• Two binary variables measuring the pace or rate of work, novelty in job tasks ture as well as higher dependence on
way quality is controlled: and teamwork, and can be measured by technologies to set the pace of work-
- Use of precise quality standards; the EWCS. In the 2010 survey, the same ers and reliance on team work in lean
- Self-assessment of the quality 15 dimensions to determine the presence production forms;
of work. and size of the four types of work organi-
sations is used. • An emphasis on workers’ autonomy
• Three binary variables measuring the in organising and controlling the
cognitive dimensions of work: Traditional forms of work organisation are products of their work, decreased
- Complexity of tasks; based on the principles of labour division, interdependency of work process in
- Learning new things in work; hierarchical and centralised authority and learning organisations;
- Work requires problem-solving. control. They are designed as static struc -
tures, optimised for a fixed set of external • Attention to quality of working life is
• Four binary variables measuring con - economic, social and cultural conditions. a key driver for example in the case
straints of the pace or rate of work: However, the emergence of new and uncer - of STS;
- Constraints linked to the equip- tain environments has put these traditional
ment speed or movement of work structures under increasing pressure. • While learning in lean production
a product in production flow; As a response, new forms of work organisa - forms of organisation is mostly used
- Constraints relating to numerical tion have emerged that are more flexible to improve the work processes and
production or performance targets; and more responsive to changing internal or increase productivity, learning activities
- Constraints due to direct control by external circumstances. Many of these ‘new’ in the case of learning organisations are
worker’s immediate supervisors; forms are often grouped together under seen as a critical activity for respond-
- Constraints resulting from depend - the label ‘High Performance workplaces’ ing to unforeseen events and for the
ency on the work done by work- (HPWP), but this group is far from being introduction of important innovations.
er’s colleagues. homogeneous and covers some of the
defining characteristics of different organi - In contrast to Tayloristic organisations,
• Three binary variables measuring sational forms such as the socio-technical which have been abundantly criticised for
degree of novelty in job tasks: systems (STS), the learning organisations, their physically demanding work, repetitive
- Perceived monotony of tasks; lean production, high performance work tasks and low learning opportunities, because
- Repetitiveness of tasks of less systems and the adhocracy (Mintzberg). conception is distinct from execution, lean
than one minute. production is designed to improve the overall
- Task rotation between colleagues Combs et al (2006), in a meta-analysis of performance of the organisation by assigning
92 recent studies on HPWS and perfor- more autonomy to workers and their immedi -
• A three-level variable measuring of mance, found evidence that HPWS enhance ate managers, but with continued emphasis
the use of teamwork, with catego- organisational performance. An increase in on the strict quality standards, standardisa -
ries of autonomous teamwork (team one standard deviation in the use of HPWS tion of work and procedures and with reliance
members decide the division of tasks), is associated with a 4.6 % increase in gross on individual performance-based pay struc -
non-autonomous teamwork (manag- return on assets and a 4.4 percentage-point tures. Lean forms of work organisation differ
ers/supervisors decide the division of decrease in turnover from 18.4 to 14.0 %. in a number of ways from the STS in that
tasks) and no teamwork( ). The effect is stronger when bundles of meas - they promote development of more special -
125
ures are considered together rather than ised, contextualised skills, organise work into
individual practices. Effects sizes are larger wider production systems (greater interde -
( ) In the analyses of trend data a binary in manufacturing industries than in service pendency) and provide feedback and support
125
variable measuring presence of teamwork industries. Common to these HPWP forms that are based on the degree to which strict
was used, since a three-level variable was
not available in the 2000 EWCS dataset. are attention to knowledge as a competitive performance criteria are satisfied.
178
